What’s in it for me? Discover existentialist philosophy’s most influential work.
Published in 1943 amid the chaos of World War II, Jean-Paul Sartre’s Being and Nothingness was an intellectual bombshell. With its searing examination of human consciousness, freedom, and responsibility, this philosophical text became an instant classic and transformed Sartre into one of Europe’s leading intellectuals.
Being and Nothingness draws on the philosophical legacy of phenomenology and Sartre’s own existentialist thinking to articulate radical new ideas about the self, authenticity, and subjectivity. Today, these concepts remain deeply influential in many fields.
This Blink dives into the exhilarating and unsettling ideas at the heart of existentialism. You’ll see why, many decades later, it continues to fascinate readers.
The phenomenon of being
Being and Nothingness opens with a declaration. Sartre promises to focus on phenomenon and appearance, rather than on hidden essences or abstract dualisms. He argues that looking at the phenomenon – meaning the way things appear to our consciousness – is key to understanding existence. This is the viewpoint of phenomenology, a school of philosophy that emphasizes the lived experience of human beings.
Sartre distinguishes between the phenomenon of being and the being of the phenomenon. The phenomenon of being refers to how an object outwardly appears to be to human consciousness. The being of the phenomenon indicates how an object is in itself – what we might call the “essence” of that thing.
For example, when you observe a tree, the phenomenon of being is what you directly experience: its colors, shapes, and textures as perceived by you. The being of the phenomenon is the tree's essence or inner nature, independent of perception – like its biological or atomic makeup. But we have no direct access to this inner essence. We can only ever know things through their appearance as a phenomenon. Therefore, phenomenon precedes essence.
Sartre critiques the idea that consciousness is simply awareness of one’s own thinking. Consciousness is the whole of human existence and being itself. It does not come before existence. Rather, it arises at the same time as existence. They are two aspects of the same thing.
This leads to the concepts of being-for-itself, which is a mode of being that involves self-awareness and freedom, and being-in-itself, which means merely existing, unaware. Being-for-itself refers to human consciousness, which is self-contained, dynamic and fully realized.
Sartre rejects the idea that consciousness is some divine gift from God that separates humans from nature. His aim is to derive an ontological proof of his ideas purely from observing phenomena, without resorting to traditional notions about hidden essences or God.
These ideas lay the groundwork for a radical existentialist philosophy grounded in concrete human experience rather than muddy abstractions. If they still sound a bit fuzzy, don’t worry – we’ll explore them in depth in the next sections!
The problem of nothingness
What is the origin of being?
Sartre has a straightforward answer: Nothingness. When we question our existence, we soon encounter the possibility of negation and absence. We are, but we can imagine that we might as well not be. Nothingness is a result of human freedom – our capacity to negate, to conceive of what is not. This reveals the essential role of nothingness in relation to our being. Being and nothingness are not opposing forces, but deeply intertwined.
Human existence is a confrontation with reality and nothingness at once. While the world contains being, it’s also suspended in meaninglessness. The meaningless absurdity of human life is represented by nothingness. We come from nothing and we go back to nothing.
Accepting this absurd condition is difficult. Many fall into bad faith instead, deceiving themselves about reality. Bad faith occurs when we deny our freedom or the meaningless nature of existence. It represents a failure to live authentically, instead constructing comforting illusions.
For example, a woman may pretend a man is interested in friendship when she knows he wants sex. She lies to herself to avoid confronting reality.
Bad faith provides false hope that life has inherent meaning. But for Sartre, living authentically means embracing nothingness and our radical freedom to choose meaning. Nothingness is the blank canvas on which we must create meaning through our choices and actions.
Though rather abstract, these ideas profoundly impacted twentieth-century thought. The revelation that life has no pre-assigned meaning or essence was both deeply disturbing and liberating. It sparked both anxiety and a newfound freedom to self-define.
Being-for-itself
The key to overcoming the absurdity of life lies in being-for-itself, or conscious existence.
Being-for-itself is characterized by its utter lack of any predetermined essence or nature. Human consciousness, for instance, is inherently free, undefined, and self-aware. It transcends fixed categories and definitions. This differs starkly from being-in-itself; the mode of being of unconscious objects.
Being-for-itself is not limited to internal mental states, but also encompasses the external world. It contains both belief and consciousness of belief, both thought and awareness of thought. Imagine you’re admiring a beautiful painting. As you do, you’re feeling both admiration and awareness of your admiration. You’re also aware that your admiration is directed toward an external object – the painting.
This unified view also applies to Sartre’s conception of temporality. He critiques the traditional linear conception of past, present, and future as distinct and separate times. Instead, he sees all three flowing together as part of the unified field of consciousness.
Consciousness plays a key role in our human ability to shape our essence through reflection and negation. According to existentialism, humans have no set identity or nature. This radical subjectivity means that we are radically free and bear the full responsibility for our choices and actions. With no essence to fall back on, we must create ourselves entirely through our deeds.
This is the exhilarating and anxiety-inducing truth of the human condition: We have the total freedom to invent ourselves and give meaning to our lives.
Thus, existentialism opens up a whole new view of human consciousness and freedom. Focusing on subjectivity over objectivity, it grants individuals power over their destinies while highlighting the burden of choice.
Subjectivity through the other
Humans don’t exist in isolation. Our identities emerge through other people. We’re never just shaping ourselves, we’re also being shaped by others. This intersubjective dimension is core to human consciousness.
For instance, we can never fully know our own bodies, since we cannot step outside them and observe them objectively. Our physical selves remain elusive. But we can gain insight into our embodiment by perceiving the bodies of others. We see their eyes, limbs, expressions. This intersubjective dimension enables a self-awareness of our own body.
Sartre calls this extra subjective dimension the Other. Our self-consciousness relies on the Other – we require their perspective to complete our own. Their subjectivity penetrates our own and bestows us with meaning.
At the same time, the Other represents a threat. Their gaze objectifies us, provoking feelings of shame or pride in how we appear. Their judgment imprisons us in fixed social roles and denies our freedom. So we should never surrender totally to the Other’s point of view.
This threat is also present in social and romantic relationships. These relationships define, distort and unsettle us. They involve pursuit and flight, attraction and repulsion. Often we seek unity but also fear engulfment and loss of self.
Sometimes we try to control or own someone else, for example, in a possessive love, which can give us the illusion of fully retaining our freedom. But this usually ends in sadness. To truly be free, we need to know both who we are and what others are not.
Ultimately, there are no easy answers on how to build our relationships. They require ongoing navigation of the constant tension between connection and autonomy.
The paradox of freedom
Humans inherently lack a predetermined essence. This means we’re inevitably free. Sartre defines this freedom as our capacity to act or even decide against acting. In theory, this means we have boundless possibilities. But in practice, our freedom isn't limitless. Our environment, past experiences, and our inevitable mortality constructs boundaries around our range of choices.
Many of these choices stem from a yearning for transcendence. We want to elevate ourselves beyond the human condition and become God-like. But the world doesn't necessarily cater to this ambition. It's inherently random and absurd. This sense of absurdity extends to our freedom and our desires. We often feel incomplete, driving us to seek external possessions, hoping they might fill our inner void. But these are just temporary solutions.
True freedom means navigating the tension between being, having, and doing. It's a mistake, Sartre believes, for psychoanalysis to dissect the self into separate components. We should perceive ourselves as whole beings. And despite the confines we encounter, our abilities to make conscious choices and act in the world are the things that define our humanity.
However, with this freedom comes inherent anxiety. Without a universal playbook, we shoulder the immense responsibility of crafting our own meaning. Sartre’s perspective illuminates the duality of human existence – we're simultaneously free and bound; capable of agency yet restricted.
Therein lies the paradox of freedom: it’s both a burden and a gift. It’s on us to shoulder the burden gracefully and use this gift wisely.
Final summary
At the heart of existentialist philosophy is the idea that humans inherently lack a predetermined essence, which means we’re free to define ourselves. This means we first exist, and then, through our choices and actions, we shape our own nature. We possess a profound freedom to act or choose not to, but this carries with it inherent anxiety. In reality, our freedom is constrained by our environment, our past, and mortality. We yearn for transcendence, seeking to rise beyond our human condition. Yet, we also face the world's inherent absurdity, where our desires and freedom often clash, leading to feelings of incompleteness. Existentialism thus emphasizes the duality of human existence: we’re simultaneously free and bound. It is ultimately our responsibility to craft our own meaning in an absurd world.